McGill University, 2020
Researchers tested how well people could find their way around without GPS. People who used GPS the most in everyday life had the weakest spatial memory, the skill we use to learn and remember routes. When the researchers retested a group three years later, the people who had used GPS more showed a steeper decline in their spatial memory.
Dahmani & Bohbot, “Habitual use of GPS negatively impacts spatial memory during self-guided navigation,” Scientific Reports, 2020
Microsoft Research and Carnegie Mellon University, 2025
Researchers surveyed 319 knowledge workers who use AI tools at least once a week. Workers who had more confidence in the AI reported doing less critical thinking on the tasks they used it for. Workers who had more confidence in their own skills reported doing more critical thinking, such as checking and improving the AI’s answers.
Lee et al., “The Impact of Generative AI on Critical Thinking,” CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, 2025
SBS Swiss Business School, 2025
A researcher surveyed hundreds of people in the UK about how often they use AI tools and how they evaluate information. People who used AI tools more often scored lower in critical thinking and higher in cognitive offloading (relying on tools to assist with critical thinking). The pattern was strongest among participants aged 17 to 25, who used AI the most.
Gerlich, “AI Tools in Society: Impacts on Cognitive Offloading and the Future of Critical Thinking,” Societies, 2025
Brain and AI Research Group, Delhi, 2026
In an experiment, 120 young adults identified logical fallacies, some using ChatGPT and some on their own. The ChatGPT group got more answers right and reported far less mental effort. In interviews, the people who worked on their own described doing more independent reasoning and checking their own work.
Jain et al., “Cognitive offloading, critical thinking and attitudes towards artificial intelligence in the era of ChatGPT,” Cognitive Processing, 2026